When we speak or write in English, we often need to give extra information about a person, a place, or a thing.
For example:

• I met a woman. She works at the museum.
  → I met a woman who works at the museum.

We combine the two sentences using a relative clause.

Defining relative clauses help us identify exactly who or what we are talking about — they define the noun. Without this information, the sentence would be unclear.

What Is a Defining Relative Clause?

A defining relative clause gives essential information about a noun.
It tells us which person, thing, or place we mean.

🟢 The information in the relative clause is necessary to understand the sentence.
If we remove it, the meaning changes.

Relative Pronouns

We use relative pronouns to connect the main clause and the relative clause.

🟡 Tip: In defining relative clauses, we don’t use commas because the information is essential.

When Can We Omit the Relative Pronoun?

We can leave out “who,” “which,” or “that” when it’s the object of the clause (not the subject).

✅ The book that I read was interesting. → The book I read was interesting.
❌ The teacher teaches English is great. → (cannot omit — “who” is the subject)

Examples in Context

• She’s the woman who teaches our English class.
• That’s the shop where I bought my shoes.
• He’s the actor whose movies are very popular in Asia.
• This is the place where we met for the first time.

Each clause gives key information that helps the listener understand exactly who or what we’re talking about.

Let’s Practice

Practice 1

Practice 2

Speaking

Practice 1

Practice 2

Articles are small but powerful words in English! We use them before nouns to show if we are talking about something general or specific.

Let’s review how and when to use a, an, the, and no article in clear steps.

The Definite Article – the

We use the when the listener knows exactly what we’re talking about — something specific, unique, or already mentioned.

✅ Use “the” for:

• Something both people know about:
  → I’m going back to the city tomorrow.
• Famous buildings or landmarks:
  → We visited the Empire State Building.
• Something unique (only one):
  → People all over the world love music.

🟡 Example:

I saw the movie you told me about.
(It’s clear which movie.)

The Indefinite Articles – a / an

We use a or an when we talk about one thing for the first time, or something not specific.

✅ Use “a / an” for:

• When you mention something new:
  → I bought a book yesterday.
• When you mean “one” of something:
  → I had an idea this morning.
• When you talk generally (not a specific one):
  → Would you like a coffee?

💡 Tip:

• Use a before consonant sounds → a dog, a student, a car
• Use an before vowel sounds → an apple, an hour, an umbrella

Zero Article – no article (Ø)

Sometimes, we don’t use a, an, or the at all!
This is called the zero article (Ø).

✅ Use no article for:

• People or things in general:
  → Tourists love visiting New York.
  → Dogs are friendly animals.
• Uncountable nouns:
  → I love music and coffee.

🟡 Example:

I enjoy listening to music.
(We’re not talking about specific music.)

🧩 Comparative Table: Articles in English

🧠 Grammar Tip

🔹 Use a/an when you mention something for the first time.
🔹 Use the when both people know what you’re talking about.
🔹 Use no article (Ø) for things in general or uncountable nouns.

For more information about articles visit:

Let’s Practice

Practice 1

Practice 2

Speaking

How to talk about past events and experiences

Have you ever wondered whether to say “I went” or “I’ve been”?
Both talk about the past — but they don’t mean the same thing.

In English, we use the Simple Past to describe actions in a finished time and the Present Perfect to describe experiences or actions that are connected to now.

The Simple Past — Finished Time

We use the Simple Past to talk about completed actions or situations that happened in the past.
The time is specific and finished.

✅ Structure:

Subject + past form of the verb

🕓 Common Time Expressions:

• yesterday
• last week / last year
• in 2010
• two days ago
• when I was a child

💡 Tip: If you say when something happened → use the Simple Past.

The Present Perfect — Experience and Connection to Now

We use the Present Perfect to talk about past actions or experiences that are still relevant now.
The focus is on the result or the experience, not on when it happened.

✅ Structure:

Subject + have/has + past participle

🕓 Common Time Expressions:

• ever / never
• just / already / yet
• for / since
• recently / lately / so far

💡 Tip: Don’t say when with Present Perfect. The exact time is not important.

Comparing the Two

💬 Think like this:

• Simple Past = WHEN it happened
• Present Perfect = IF it has happened (and still matters)

Real-Life Examples

🗣️ Everyday English:

“I’ve lost my keys!” (They’re still lost — problem now!)
“I lost my keys yesterday.” (Problem finished — I found them later.)

💼 At work:

“I’ve already sent the email.” (It’s done now — result matters.)
“I sent the email this morning.” (It happened earlier, time finished.)

💬Talking about experiences:

“Have you ever been to Italy?”
“Yes, I went there two years ago.”

🧠 Quick Review

✅ Simple Past:

• finished time
• “When?” is clear
• used with: yesterday, last week, in 2010

✅ Present Perfect:

• experience or result
• “When?” is not important
• used with: ever, never, for, since, already, yet

💡 Remember:
If the time is finished → Simple Past
If the time connects to now → Present Perfect

Let’s Practice

Practice 1

Practice 2

Speaking

Practice 1

Practice 2

Complete the questions and discuss the topics with your classmates

We use used to + base verb to talk about:
✅ things we did regularly in the past, but don’t do now
✅ situations that were true in the past, but aren’t true now

“I used to take the bus to school.” (I don’t take it now.)
“There used to be a park here.” (The park isn’t here anymore.)

⚙️ Structure of used to

🟡 Notice: After did, we write use to (without “d”).
🟡 The verb after “used to” never changes — it’s always the base form!

🕰️ Used to vs. Past Simple

Both talk about the past, but there’s a difference 👇

💡 Tip: If it happened regularly and it’s not true now → use used to.
If it happened once → use Past Simple.

💬 Pronunciation & Speaking Tip

When speaking quickly, used to often sounds like /ˈjuːstə/.

“I used to go to the gym” → sounds like “I yoosta go to the gym.”

✅ Practice saying:

• I used to watch cartoons.
• Did you use to play an instrument?
• We didn’t use to eat sushi.

🧠 Quick Review

✅ Used to + base verb → past habits or states that are not true now
✅ Didn’t use to / Did you use to… → questions and negatives
✅ Past Simple → specific actions in the past
✅ Use used to to talk about change over time

Let’s practice

Speaking

Practice 1

Complete the sentences about your past habits.

Practice 2

Look at the pictures in the cards and make a sentence about your past habits.

Example: When I was a child, I didn’t use to have a mobile phone.

Board game

We can talk about the future in many ways in English!
In this lesson, you’ll learn two important ones:

👉 Be going to — for plans and intentions
👉 Present continuous — for arrangements and schedules

Let’s see the difference 👇

⏩ “Be Going To” – Plans and Intentions

We use “be going to” when we decide to do something (a plan or intention).
It’s something we want or plan to do, but not always arranged yet.

🧱 Structure:

Subject + be (am/is/are) + going to + verb

💬 Examples:

• I’m going to buy a new phone. 📱
• She’s going to start a new job. 💼
• We’re going to travel next summer. ✈️

🧠 Think:

“I have a plan, but maybe no fixed time or place yet.”

📅 Present Continuous – Arrangements and Schedules

We use present continuous for fixed arrangements.

Fixed arrangements are things that are already organized with time, people, or place.

🧱 Structure:

Subject + be (am/is/are) + verb-ing

💬 Examples:

• I’m meeting my friends tonight. 🎉
• She’s flying to Paris on Monday. 🗓️
• We’re having dinner with our teacher tomorrow. 🍽️

🧠 Think:

“It’s in my calendar —> it’s arranged!”

⚖️ Compare

Let’s practice

Practice 1

Practice 2

Speaking